SEQUENTIAL STORAGE- is an organization or arrangement of data on a storage medium that consists of one record following another in a particular order.

• The files that provide the conceptual representation of the firm are MASTER FILES
• The process of updating a file is called FILE MAINTENANCE and it involves adding records,deleting records
• The KEY is the data element that identifies the records of file
• The address is transformed by an algorithm called HASHING SCHEME or RANDOMIZING FORMULA to produce the address
• BATCH PROCESSING involves process the transaction individually often at the time they occur
• DATA DEPENDENCE refers to the tight coupling of data specification and computer programs
• A file contianing such link fields is called a LINKED LIST
• DATA DICTIONARY is an enctclopedia of information concerning each data element

• DATABASE MANAGER is the most important element that it handles the user’s data requests.

THE DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR

• DATABASE PLANNING involves working with managers to define the firm’s schema, and with users to define their sub-schema’s.
• DATABASE IMPLEMENTATION consists of creating the database to conform to the specifications of the selected DBMS.
• DATABASE OPERATION includes offering educational programs to database users, and providing assistance when needed.
• DATABASE SECURITY includes the monitoring of database activity using statistics provided by DBMS.

database administrator (DBA) is a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database. In general, these include:

• Recoverability - Creating and testing Backups
• Integrity - Verifying or helping to verify data integrity
• Security - Defining and/or implementing access controls to the data
• Availability - Ensuring maximum uptime
• Performance - Ensuring maximum performance
• Development and testing support - Helping programmers and engineers to efficiently utilize the database.

The role of a database administrator has changed according to the technology of database management systems (DBMSs) as well as the needs of the owners of the databases. For example, although logical and physical database design are traditionally the duties of a database analyst or database designer, a DBA may be tasked to perform those duties.

Duties

The duties of a database administrator vary and depend on the job description, corporate and Information Technology (IT) policies and the technical features and capabilities of the DBMS being administered. They nearly always include disaster recovery (backups and testing of backups), performance analysis and tuning, data dictionary maintenance, and some database design.

Some of the roles of the DBA may include

• Installation of new software — It is primarily the job of the DBA to install new versions of DBMS software, application software, and other software related to DBMS administration. It is important that the DBA or other IS staff members test this new software before it is moved into a production environment.

• Configuration of hardware and software with the system administrator — In many cases the system software can only be accessed by the system administrator. In this case, the DBA must work closely with the system administrator to perform software installations, and to configure hardware and software so that it functions optimally with the DBMS.

• Security administration — Ones of the main duties of the DBA is to monitor and administer DBMS security. This involves adding and removing users, administering quotas, auditing, and checking for security problems.

• Data analysis — The DBA will frequently be called on to analyze the data stored in the database and to make recommendations relating to performance and efficiency of that data storage. This might relate to the more effective use of indexes, enabling “Parallel Query” execution, or other DBMS specific features.

• Database design (preliminary) — The DBA is often involved at the preliminary database-design stages. Through the involvement of the DBA, many problems that might occur can be eliminated. The DBA knows the DBMS and system, can point out potential problems, and can help the development team with special performance considerations.

• Data modeling and optimization — By modeling the data, it is possible to optimize the system layouts to take the most advantage of the I/O subsystem.

• Responsible for the administration of existing enterprise databases and the analysis, design, and creation of new databases.

? Data modeling, database optimization, understanding and implementation of schemas, and the ability to interpret and write complex SQL queries
? Proactively monitor systems for optimum performance and capacity constraints
? Establish standards and best practices for SQL
? Interact with and coach developers in Structured mark up language scripting

Definition of a Database

A database is a collection of related information, accessed and managed by its DBMS. After experimenting with hierarchical and networked DBMSs during the 1970’s, the IT industry became dominated by relational DBMSs (Or Object-Relational Database Management System) such as Informix database, Oracle, Sybase, and, later on, Microsoft SQL Server and the like.

In a strictly technical sense, for any database to be defined as a “Truly Relational Model Database Management System,” it should, ideally, adhere to the twelve rules defined by Edgar F. Codd, pioneer in the field of relational databases. To date, while many come close, it is admitted that nothing on the market adheres 100% to those rules, any more than they are 100% ANSI-SQL compliant.

While IBM and Oracle technically were the earliest on the RDBMS scene, many others have followed, and while it is unlikely that miniSQL still exist in their original form, Monty’s MySQL is still extant and thriving, along with the Ingres-descended PostgreSQL. Microsoft Access - the 1995+ versions, not the prior versions - were, despite various limitations, technically the closest thing to being ‘Truly Relational’ DBMS’s for the desktop PC, with Visual FoxPro, and many other desktop products marketed at that time far less compliant with Codd’s Rules.

A relational DBMS manages information about types of real-world things (entities) in the form of tables that represent the entities. A table is like a spreadsheet; each row represents a particular entity (instance), and each column represents a type of information about the entity (domain). Sometimes entities are made up of smaller related entities, such as orders and order lines; and so one of the challenges of a multi-user DBMS is provide data about related entities from the standpoint of an instant of logical consistency.

Properly managed relational databases minimize the need for application programs to contain information about the physical storage of the data they access. To maximize the isolation of programs from data structures, relational DBMSs restrict data access to the messaging protocol SQL, a nonprocedural language that limits the programmer to specifying desired results. This message-based interface was a building block for the decentralization of computer hardware, because a program and data structure with such a minimal point of contact become feasible to reside on separate computers.

Recoverability

Recoverability means that, if a data entry error, program bug or hardware failure (Vista) occurs, the DBA can bring the database backward in time to its state at an instant of logical consistency before the damage was done. Recoverability activities include making database backups and storing them in ways that minimize the risk that they will be damaged or lost, such as placing multiple copies on removable media and storing them outside the affected area of an anticipated disaster. Recoverability is the DBA’s most important concern.

The backup of the database consists of data with timestamps combined with database logs to change the data to be consistent to a particular moment in time. It is possible to make a backup of the database containing only data without timestamps or logs, but the DBA must take the database offline to do such a backup.

The recovery tests of the database consist of restoring the data, then applying logs against that data to bring the database backup to consistency at a particular point in time up to the last transaction in the logs. Alternatively, an offline database backup can be restored simply by placing the data in-place on another copy of the database.

If a DBA (or any administrator) attempts to implement a recoverability plan without the recovery tests, there is no guarantee that the backups are at all valid. In practice, in all but the most mature RDBMS packages, backups rarely are valid without extensive testing to be sure that no bugs or human error have corrupted the backups.

Security

Security means that users’ ability to access and change data conforms to the policies of the business and the delegation decisions of its managers. Like other metadata, a relational DBMS manages security information in the form of tables. These tables are the “keys to the kingdom” and so it is important to protect them from intruders.

Performance

Performance means that the database does not cause unreasonable online response times, and it does not cause unattended programs to run for an unworkable period of time. In complex client/server and three-tier systems, the database is just one of many elements that determine the performance that online users and unattended programs experience. Performance is a major motivation for the DBA to become a generalist and coordinate with specialists in other parts of the system outside of traditional bureaucratic reporting lines.

Techniques for database performance tuning have changed as DBA’s have become more sophisticated in their understanding of what causes performance problems and their ability to diagnose the problem.

In the 1990s, DBAs often focused on the database as a whole, and looked at database-wide statistics for clues that might help them find out why the system was slow. Also, the actions DBAs took in their attempts to solve performance problems were often at the global, database level, such as changing the amount of computer memory available to the database, or changing the amount of memory available to any database program that needed to sort data.

DBA’s now understand that performance problems initially must be diagnosed, and this is best done by examining individual SQL statements, table process, and system architecture, not the database as a whole. Various tools, some included with the database and some available from third parties, provide a behind the scenes look at how the database is handling the SQL statements, shedding light on what’s taking so long.

Having identified the problem, the individual SQL statement can be^[clarify]

Development/Testing Support

Development and testing support is typically what the database administrator regards as his or her least important duty, while results-oriented managers consider it the DBA’s most important duty. Support activities include collecting sample production data for testing new and changed programs and loading it into test databases; consulting with programmers about performance tuning; and making table design changes to provide new kinds of storage for new program functions.

Here are some IT roles that are related to the role of database administrator:

• Application programmer or software engineer
• System administrator
• Data administrator
• Data architecture

Financial Input Subsystem

Internal Audit Subsytem- assist the accounting information system in providing internal data and information by means of special studies conducted by internal auditors.

The Design of an Effective Auditing Subsystem
The Compartmented Mode Workstation project (CMW) is an effort to provide a prototype implementation of enhanced computer security features on a workstation. The ultimate goal of this project is to demonstrate that the compartmented mode workstation requirements detailed in “Security Requirements for System High and Compartmented Mode Workstations” [CMWREQS] can be met in an operationally useful manner.

One of the necessary security enhancements that must be made to a workstation is the inclusion of a comprehensive auditing facility. For any computer system to be considered secure, it must have the ability to generate and store audit information on significant events. This information shall then be provided to authorized personnel for security and system monitoring. This document describes the design and implementation of the CMW’S auditing subsystem. The auditing subsystem was developed in conjunction with other parts of the total CMW project.

Financial Intelligence Subsystem- gathers information from the environmental elements that influence the money flow.

Forecasting Subsystem- conducts long range forcasts five to ten years in the future to provide the basis far strategic planning.

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Dining room decorating is one household task where it’s okay to get a little formal. The dining room is, after all, meant for more elegant entertaining than a living room or den. It should show off the best your home has to offer, but still remain comfortable enough for company to feel at home. The best dining room decorating is definitely about appearances, but it’s also about eating. Keeping a balance of these two functions will ensure great everyday meals and include enough flash for any special occasion

Well-planned dining room design is essential for the room to be its best. What you can do will depend heavily on the amount of space you start with.

In a larger dining room, you have a lot more leeway as to where everything should go and what items should be included. Here, you’ve got the space for a buffet (when entertaining, probably the most convenient piece of furniture you can put in a dining room, other than a table and chairs). There’s also room for a china cabinet, which will both look nice and be convenient for service as well as storage.

Dining room design is difficult for a small room, so you’ll have to get creative. You may not be able to fit a china cabinet or buffet without the room becoming too crowded to easily pass through. In this situation, it’s a good idea to keep some extra tables and chairs in storage to use when company is expected (card tables can look pretty good when covered with a classy table cloth). Don’t be afraid to pull some things out of the room before entertaining; the fine line between cozy and cramped can often be skirted by the removal of a few unnecessary items.

The job of the interior designer is to work closely with the owner and architect to ensure consistency of design intent throughout the project.We work hard to bring the client the most appropriate options to choose from, whether they be fixtures, finishes, doors, hardware, tile, colors, fabric, lighting or trim. It’s vitally important that the decorating choices work well together, especially as the demands imposed by the timber frame are quite different from those in a conventionally framed house. We’ll bring out the true beauty of heavy timber, while giving you freedom to incorporate complimentary stylistic touches throughout your home.

Here’s a specific scope of our full Interior Design Package

• Support in choosing exterior finishes: siding and its colors, roofing, window colors, garage doors, foundation stone, decking material, balustrade and railing.
• Review of supplied landscaping plans.
• Lighting: review and revision of supplied lighting plans as well as fixture choices [both lights and fans]
• Review of central air vent locations and central vacuum outlets.
• Kitchen: design and/or design support including overall layout, cabinet placement, style and material, appliance choices countertop material[s], sink[s], faucet[s] and any additional features.
• Bathrooms: Design and/or design support including overall layout, cabinet style and material, sinks, faucets, tubs, shower enclosures, toilets, towel racks, etc.
• Flooring: All interior materials [wood, tile, carpet, concrete color/finish etc.]
• Specification of all doors, exterior and interior passage, including hinges and hardware.
• Walll and ceilings: all interior spaces. Includes paint colors for wall, ceiling and trim as well as wood species specification where applicable. Review and possible revision of door and window trim profiles as well as baseboards and moldings.
• Specification of all window treatments.
• Design support for interior stair systems including treads, risers, railing, newel posts and balustrade.
• Design support for fireplaces[s] including, hearth, and mantle materials.
• Support in creating home entertainment centers [component and speaker placement, housing for televisions etc.]
• Design and/or design support for specialty built-in cabinetry and custom furniture pieces.
• Plans for arrangement of furniture in all interior and exterior spaces and options of new furniture pieces [including refinishing choices for exterior pieces]

Get started with your home or apartment interior decorating project by learning the basics of interior design. Whether you want to transform a space yourself or hire an interior designer, try these tips for home design!
Get Started Decorating

You have your new place and now you need to fill it. Before you begin a decorating project you first need to determine your resources, what is your ideal living environment, and how much you can afford spend to pull it all together.

Not to be confused with interior decoration, interior design draws on aspects of environmental psychology, architecture, and product design in addition to traditional decoration. An interior designer is a person who designs interiors as part of their job. Interior design is a creative practice that analyzes programmatic information, establishes a conceptual direction, refines the design direction, and produces graphic communication and construction documents. The distinction between interior design and ‘interior decoration’ is one relevant in the United States and Canada but not common elsewhere. As the US and Canada definition does not exist in most of the world, non-Americans or non-Canadians would be confused by the distinction.

Specializations
Interior designers can specialize in a particular interior design discipline, such as residential and commercial design, with some developing expertise within a niche design area such as hospitality, health care and institutional design. In jurisdictions where the profession is regulated by the government, designers must meet broad qualifications and show competency in the entire scope of the profession, not only in a specialty. Designers may elect to obtain specialist certification offered by private organizations. Interior designers who also possess environmental expertise in design solutions for sustainable construction can receive accreditation in this area by taking the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) examination.

The specialty areas that involve interior designers are limited only by the imagination and are continually growing and changing. With the increase in the aging population, an increased focus has been placed on developing solutions to improve the living environment of the elderly population, which takes into account health and accessibility issues that can affect the design. Awareness of the ability of interior spaces to create positive changes in people’s lives is increasing, so interior design is also becoming relevant to this type of advocacy